History 401:Schedule

History/Medieval Studies 401

Conflict of Pagans and Christians in the Roman Empire

Index

Syllabus:
Structure
Schedule

Readings:
Book List
Reserve Readings
Authors

Chronologies:
Rise of Christianity
Christianization

Handouts:
Roman Names
Evolution of Christian Message
Emperors

Links

SCHEDULE OF SESSIONS:

1.	1/19	Introduction: Nature of the Sources
2.	1/26	Greco-Roman Paganism: Public Rites & Piety
3.	2/2	The Mystery Cults
4.	2/9	Platonism and Stoicism
5.	2/16	The New Faith
6.	3/2	The Spread of Christianity, c. 50-200 A.D.
7.	3/9	Pagan Critics and Christian Apologists
8.	3/16	The Emergence of Christian Orthodoxy
9.	3/23	The Great Persecutions, c. 175-260 A.D.
10.	3/30	The Tetrarchic Persecutions & New Trends in Paganism, 260-313 A.D.
11.	4/13	Constantine, the Christian Monarchy, and the Pagan Reaction
12.	4/20	The Christianization of Roman Society
13.	4/27	The Final Definition of Dogma from Nicaea to Chalcedon, 325-451.

1. INTRODUCTION

2. GRAECO-ROMAN PAGANISM: PUBLIC PIETY AND RITES

Readings:: MacMullen, PRE, pp. 1-94; Price, Rituals and Power, pp. 1-53 (on reserve); Fox, Pagans and Christians, pp. 27-101 (on reserve); Aelius Aristides, Sacred Tales, ed. by C. Behr, pp. 23-49, 249-50, and 263-266 (on reserve)

How did the gods of public worship differ from those of Greek mythology? What constituted piety to pagans of the early Roman Empire? What was the relationship between man and the gods? How was the divine world envisioned? How closely tied was worship to the state? Were public rituals and festivals satisfying worship? How widespread was belief?

Reports:: 1. The Roman State Gods: How did the Roman conceive of their gods? How closely tied were the gods to the state and fam-ily? How did mos maiorum ("ancestral custom") influence worship? How pious were Romans of the first and second centuries?; 2. Civic Cults and Festivals: In the Greek cities of the Roman East how were the city-states (poleis) and patron divinities linked? How did processions and sacrifices tie together the believers and the gods? How powerful were these bonds? Was the individual satisfied by public worship? Was personal immortality a concern to pagans?; 3. The Imperial Cult: Is this an act of worship or merely one of political allegiance? How do Romans and western provin-cials differ from the Greeks on the emperor's divinity? How can a man become divine in Greco-Roman religious thought?; 4. Oracles, Visions, & Dreams: In what ways was contact with the divine achieved? How the did great oracles operate? How widespread was the belief in the validity of these religious experiences; 5. Syncretism: What was syncretism? How did it enable Greeks & Romans to assimilate new gods? Did it prepare the way for an abstract, monotheistic belief among pagans? Why was the cult of Sol Invictus such a powerful syncretist force?

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3. MYSTERY CULTS

Readings:: MacMullen, PRE, pp. 90-131; Burkert, Ancient Mystery Cults, pp. 12-65 and 89-116 (on reserve); Cumont, Oriental Religions, chapters 1-2 & 8 (on reserve); Mellor, "Oriental Religions and Archaeology of Western Empire," (xerox article; on reserve)

What constituted a mystery cult? How did they differ from the state cults in their rites, priesthoods, membership, and appeals? Were they in opposition or competition with the traditional cults? Did they represent a flight into the irrational during the second and third century? How much were “mystery cults” influenced by the practices and myth of traditional civic or national gods, such as the Olympians in the Greek world?

Reports:: 1. Mithras: How widespread and popular was Mithras? Was it a mystery cult? Did it offer a challenge to the traditional gods? To Christianity? How valid are the criticisms of Cumont's views?; 2. The Great Mother of Anatolia: What were the appeals of Cybele to the Greeks and Romans? Did this fertility cult offer a coherent vision of universe as well as a satisfying message of rebirth and renewal? Was it irrational and unclassical?; 3. The Eleusinian Mysteries: What were the mysteries and why were they so powerful? Were Demeter and Kore viewed as pre-Greek fertility goddesses? How much did these goddesses differ from the other Olympians?; 4. Dionysus: Is the worship of Dionysus a mystery cult? What accounted for the initial Roman resistance to it? What were the appeals of the cult? Was it irrational and unclassical?; 5. Isis and Serapis: What accounted for the popularity of these Egyptian deities? How were these Egyptian gods Hellenized into Mediterranean wide divinities? How does Plutarch reinterpret these gods as Platonic allegory?; 6. The Gods of Syria How powerful were the great shrines of Heliopolis (Baalbeck), Emesa (Homs), Palmyra, and Carrhae (Harran)? In what ways did these cults offer unique cere-monials, visions of the divine, and artistic depictions of the gods?; 7. Alexander of Abonouteichus: What does Alexander's career suggest about pagan beliefs in the second century A.D.? What does it indicate about oracles? Why did his new god Glycon become a popular one?

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4. PLATONISM AND STOICISM

Readings:: Plato, Timaeus (Penguin, pp. 7-124); Marcus Aurelius, Meditations, (Penguin, pp. 35-76 & 137-88); Cicero, De Re Publica, LCL vol. 16, pp. 261-85 ("Dream of Scipio"); Norris, God and World, pp. 11-40 (on reserve)

What was the impact of Platonic and Stoic ideas upon the Greco-Roman world? Did these philosophical systems offer a coherent cosmology? Why did Stoicism win over the Roman upper classes from c. 150 B.C. to 200 A.D.? How was Plato's religious vision altered by the Middle Platonists? Why would these later visions of Platonism be so appealing to Greeks and Jews?

Reports:: 1. The Religious Vision of the Timaeus: What is Plato's cosmology? What are the true realities? How are they related to the soul (psyche) and the physical world? What accounts for evil? Is Plato's view fundamentally optimistic? Did Plato offer a religious vision?; 2. The Middle Platonists: How did the successors of Plato alter or elaborate his views? What were the systems of Philo of Alexandria and Plutarch? What became of the three realities of the Timaeus in their schemes? How do they account for evil and the relationship of the real and physical worlds? Did they turn a philosophy into a religion?; 3. Roman Stoicism: Were Cicero or Marcus Aurelius Stoic philosophers or religious thinkers? How were Stoic philosophical precepts adapted to Roman "ancestral custom" (mos maiorum)? Why did Stoicism become so popular among the Roman senatorial classes of the first and second centuries A.D.? Was Roman Stoicism a coheret religion or philosophy?

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5. THE NEW FAITH

Readings:: Paul, Epistles to Romans, 1 Corinthians, 2 Corinthians, and Galatians; Gospel of Mark and Gospel of John; Eusebius, HC, pp. 1-3 and 58-77; Meeks, FUC, pp. 1-50 and 164-92; Brown, BS, pp. 5-32

What is the eschaton? How do Paul, Mark, and John interpret the ministry and crucifixion of Christ? How did Paul move the New Faith away from its Jewish traditions? What were the crucial developments in Christian belief from c. 30 to 80 A.D.? How does its religious vision and appeals differ from Judaism? From Greco-Roman cults?

Reports:: 1. Messianic Visions of Judaism; How did sectarian Jewish Messianic visions influence ministry of Jesus? What was meant by "Son of Man" in Jewish traditions? How was cosmic redemption envisioned?; 2. The Religious Vision of Mark: What is the "Kingdom of God" in Mark? When will it arrive and what is Jesus' role in its fulfilment? What is Mark's view of the ministry and message of Christ?; 3. Pauline Christianity: How did Paul transform the Christian movement from a Jewish heresy into a Gentile faith? What was the role of Torah (Law)? Who was Christ in the Pauline Epistles? In what ways did Paul remain a Pharisee?; 4. The Religious Vision of John: How does John's view of the "Kingdom of God" differ from those of Paul and Mark? What it the importance of the Parousia ("Second Coming")? How is John the representative of a Hellenic, gentile Christian outlook?; 5. The Historical Ministry & Crucifixion: Can a historical Jesus be recovered? How much does Jesus fit into the spiritual life of Judaism of the first century? What are the problems of reconstructing a historical ministry?

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6. THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY, c. 50-200 A.D.

Readings:: Luke, Acts of the Apostles; Eusebius, HC, pp. 77-89 and 93-104; Meeks, FUC, pp. 51-163; MacMullen, CRE, pp. 1-41; Brown, BS, pp. 33-83 & 140-59; Richardson, ECF, pp. 15-26, 33-73 (1 Clement); 74-120 (Ignatius),; 161-79 (Didache); 183-204 (2 Clement)

What individuals and social classes were attracted to Christianity in the first and second centuries? How widespread was Christianity and when did become primarily a gentile faith? How self contained were the Christian communities? How extensive was proselytizing?

Reports:: 1. Spiritual Appeals: How did early Christian teachings (esp. as seen in Clement 1 & 2 and Didache) attract converts? How did these teachings appeal to Jews of Palestine, Jews of the Diaspora, or Greek pagans? How did prophecy and asceticism impress converts?; 2. Social and Economic Appeals: Were there practical benefits to early Christianity? Did Christian communities have resources for widespread charity? From what economic and social classes did the earliest converts come? How did Christians view the greater pagan world?; 3. The Christian Synagogue: How did early Christian churches operate as synagogues? What was the organization and life of Pauline churches? Why was such organization adopted? How did it reflect membership?; 4. Monarchical Bishops: When did the monarchical bishops first appear and what principles did they base their authority?? How important are bishops such as Ignatius or Polycarp in winning converts? What spured on organization of a church hierarchy? How was leadership determined? What were the leading churches by?; 5. Defining Canon: Why was the determination of canon so essential for later Christian success? What were the key documents? How did bishops such as Polycrap sponsor such efforts?

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7. PAGAN CRITICS AND CHRISTIAN APOLOGISTS

Readings:: Wilken, Christians as Romans Saw Them, pp. 68-125 (on reserve); Pelikan, ECT, pp. 11-55 & 120-71; Richardson, ECF, pp. 205-24 (Diognetus), 225-89 (Justin the Martyr), and 290-349 (Athenagoras); Lewis and Reinhold, Roman Civilization, vol. 2, pp. 224-27 (Tacitus) and 581-84 (Pliny the Younger)

What were early Christian attitudes to the pagan world? What accounted for the first persecutions? When and why did pagans begin criticize Christianity? How effective were Christian Apologists in answering pagan charges? How did the Apologists define the Christian faith?

Reports:: 1. Roman Anti-Semitism: How did Greco-Roman hostility to Judaism prepare for persecutions? How did Christianity differ from Judaism in the opinion of pagans? Why were Christians "atheists"?; 2. The First Persecutions: Why did Nero persecute the Christ-ians in 64? Why was the Christian name (nomen Christianum) an offense? How typical were Pliny's views of Christians? How did early persecutions influence the self images of both pagans and Christians?; 3. Galen and Celsus vs. Christians: How effectively did Galen and Celsus criticize Christian beliefs? How well did they understand Christian practices and beliefs? What were the essential points in pagan criticisms?; 4. The First Christian Apologists: How well did the earliest Apologists defend the faith? Would their arguments persuade a pagan convert? How did pagan criticism bring on Christian self definition? Did the Apologists truly answer pagan criticisms? How were Justin the Martyr or Tertullian seminal Christian thinkers who generated theology?; A. Justin the Martyr; B. Tertullian; C. Theophilus of Antioch; D. Minucius Felix

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8. THE EMERGENCE OF CHRISTIAN ORTHODOXY

Readings:: Montanism & Apocalyptic Tradition; Gnosticism; Emerging Orthodoxy

How did the challenge of both Montanism and Gnosticism generate a search for Christian orthodoxy? How did Montanism emerge from the tradition of the Apocalypse? What were the origins of Gnosticism? How did Gnostic opinion on cosmology, canon, perception of evil, and the salvation of the soul differ from that of "orthodox" Christianity? How did Origen synthe-size Christian faith and Platonism? Why was Origen so important to the growth of Christian theology?

Reports:: 1. Montanism: How were the Montanists rigorists? What sort of challenge did Montanists pose to the orthodox church? How were they the legitimate heirs of the earliest Christian views of the Apocalypse?; 2. Marcion: Why did Marcion's editing of the Pauline letters lead to "radical" views of the Christian message? How much of a threat did his church pose?; 3. The Challenge of Gnosticism: What are the main Gnostic sects? How do they employ pagan myth, Jewish traditions, and Christian scripture to expain the universe? Why is their "dualism" unacceptable to orthodox Christians such as Irenaeus? Is Irenaeus fair in his criticisms of Gnostics?; 4. Origen: Why are Origen's opinions and questions so funda-mental to Christian perceptions and beliefs? How does Origen explain cosmology? Why is his view of the creation, of Christ, of evil, and of salvation so important? Does Origen fail or succeed in his synthesis of Christian and Platonic beliefs?

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9. THE GREAT PERSECUTIONS, 175-260 A.D.

Readings:: Fox, Pagans and Christians, pp. 419-92 (on reserve); Richardson, ECF, pp. 102-06 (Ignatius) & 121-40 (Polycarp); Eusebius, HC, pp. 138-152, 179, 183-185, 203-238; de Ste. Croix, "Why Were Christians Persecuted?," P & P 13 (1963), 6-31 (photocopy); Hopkins, "Murderous Games," in Death and Renewal, pp. 1-30 (photocopy)

What factors prompted the imperial government to institute empire wide persecutions in the third century? Did persecutions testify to the strength or weakness of paganism? How numerous were the Christians? Did martyrdoms of Christians win converts among pagans?

Reports:: 1. Political Crisis & Militant Paganism: How did political and military crisis from 161 on shape Roman views of their gods? Were the gods viewede as more militant? Was there a conservative revival of paganism or a failure of nerve?; 2. Imperial Persecutions, c. 175-260 A.D. How much did the imperial government direct the persecutions in 175-250? Why did Trajan Decius and Valerian institute empire wide persecutions? How successful was the imperial government in mobilizing public opinion? Was Christianity threatened by these imperial persecutions?; 3. Christian Martyrdom & Conversion: How influential are martyrs in winning converts? How true is "the blood of martyrs are the seed of the church"? How accurate is Eusebius' interpretation? Was Christianity seriously endangered by the Great Persecution? How important were cults of martyrs to Christian identity?; 4. Persecutions and Hersey: How seriously did persecutions fragment Christians? How did issues over lapsi lead to such schismatic churches as Novatianism and Donatism? Did these confessions retard or promote Christianization?

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10. THE TETRARCHIC PERSECUTIONS AND NEW CURRENTS IN PAGANISM, 260-313 A.D.

Readings:: Eusebius, HC, pp. 238-302; Williams, Diocletian and Roman Recovery, pp. 151-200; Brown, PS, pp. 190-212; MacMullen, PRE, pp. 131-37

Why did Diocletian and Galerius renew persecution? Did they conceive of their efforts as a struggle of religions? Did Christianity pose a threat to their restoration of the Roman order? What was the relationship between the Christian church and the empire in c. 300 A.D.? Was Christianity's success inevitable by 300 A.D.? Did Neoplatonism and Manichaeism offer other universal spiritualism?

Reports:: 1. Tetrarchic Persecutions: How did Diocletian and his col-leagues plan to defeat Christianity? How effective were the Tetrarchic persecutions? Was the pagan counter-church of Galerius a sound move? Could the Tetrarchs reverse the ad-vance of Christianity?; 2. The Tetrarchic Martyrs: How well did Christianity resist the Great Persecution? Had the "Peace of the Church" (250-303) given Christianity the numbers and wealth to be assured of victory by 300? How was the Great Persecution doomed to failure?; 3. Plotinus & Pagan Henotheism: How did Plotinus' Neoplatonic scheme of emanations offer a pagan intellectual counter to Christian Platonists? What is Plotinus' view of cosmology, salvation, and sin? Can his view be the intellectual rallying cry of a revived paganism or an alternative to the universalism of Chrisitan beliefs? What would Christians find objectionable about Plotinus' henotheistic views?; 4. Neoplatonism & Theurgy: How did Neoplatonists Iamblichus, Porphyry, Libanius, and Julian transform Plotinian views into an intellectual rallying cry against Christianity in the early fourth century? Did they offer a more coherent view of religious reality than the Christians? What was the role of theurgy? How effective were their criticisms of Christianity? How distant were these pagan from their Christian counterparts?; 5. The Mission of Mani: What led to the rapid spread of the doctrines of Mani? Was Manichaeism a new religion or a Christian heresy? Why did pagans and Christians alike fear it? Was Manichaeism a serious competitor of Christianity?

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11. CONSTANTINE, THE CHRISTIAN MONARCHY, AND THE PAGAN REACTION

Readings:: Eusebius, HC, pp. 291-294 and 303-333; Jones, CCE, pp. 13-116 and 179-210; MacMullen, CRE, pp. 443-51; Bowersock, Julian, pp. 66-105 (on reserve); Ammianus Marcellinus, Penguin edition, pp. 91-94 & 186-256 (or LCL edition, bks. 22 and 25. 3-4, in the LCL ed., vol. 2, pp. 3-89 and 491-516)

What were the motives for Constantine's conversion to Christianity? What does his experience reveal of the process of conversion? How actively did they suppress pagan cults?, How important was imperial patronage in promoting conversion of pagans and heretics? What role did Constantine and his sons play in the affairs of the church, theology, and missionary work? How could Julian reverse two generations of Christian rule? Did his reformed paganism offer an effective counter to Christ-ianity? Was Julian the hero of a lost cause? Did Julian plan to persecute the Christians? Why were bishops such powerful figures in cities by Julian's day?

Reports:: 1. The Conversion of Constantine What are the sources? What possible motives influenced Constantine to convert? What motives other than spiritual might convince to embrace or support Christianity? Was he really a solar syncretist?How typical of were Constantine's beliefs?; 2. Constantine and the Bishops: Did Constantine and his heirs view the bishops as imperial servants? What precedents did Constantine have for dealing with bishops? Were emperors likely to cooperate or clash with bishops?; 3. The Eusebian Christian Monarchy: How much did Eusebius and other Greek intellectuals contribute to the formation of Caesaropapism? How did Constantine see himself in defining and enforcing doctrine? Why did the Western church differ?; 4. Constantine & the Schismatics: How well did Constantine handle the Donatist and Meletian schisms? Did these schismatics pose serious threats? Did the Constantine seriously compromise the unity of the empire?; 5. Julian's Reform of Cults: How comprehensive was Julian's reform of the pagan cults? How were the reforms of public cults and classical cities part of the same program? What role his Platonic solar cult play? Given time, could Julian's revived cults have checked the growth of Christianity?; 6. Julian's Critique of Christians: How sophisticated was the polemic aimed at Christians? What was the purpose of his reforms on education and the schools?; 7. Roman Senatorial Paganism: Were senators true pagans or just cultural conservatives? What were the points of conflict between Christian emperor and pagan senators between 363 and 392? Did Symmachus lead a pagan party of opposition? Why was the revolt of Arbogast and Eugenius such a weak last stand of paganism (392-394)? Why did Roman senators embrace Christianity in the fifth century?; 8. Hellenic Neoplatonism: Why did the intelligensia in the Greek East cling tenaciously to pagan beliefs? What was the role of theurgy and sacrifice? What was the role of Neoplatonic beliefs? What was the role of Proclus and the Academy in Athens? How typical was Synesius of Cyrene as a Neoplatonist who embraced Christianity?; 9. Christian Emperors & Pagans, 363-565: How important was coercion in conversion after the failure of Julian? Why did emperors such as Theodosius I and Justinian suppress paganism?

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12. THE CHRISTIANIZATION OF ROMAN SOCIETY

Readings:: Kitzinger, MBA, pp. 1-126; MacMullen, CRE, pp. 52-119; Brown, BS, pp. 210-365

What forces were at work transforming the Roman Empire into a Christian world? What was the role of the emperor, the church hierarchy, and holy men? How did bishops transform their pagan cities into Christian ones in 312-500? Why was the growth of Christian ceremonies and arts so vital? Did Christianity replace or succeed to the spiritual traditions of paganism? When did the Roman world become an effectively "Christian" empire?

Reports:: 1. Emperor & Missions: Why was imperial patronage so vital for missionary work? Why was Gregory Thaumaturgus successful? How did missionaries persaude pagans to convert?; 2. The Bishops in the City: Did the bishops play a decisive role in the Christianization of the cities? Why did they emerge as the leading figures in civic society by Julian's day? How did they redefine the city in Christian terms?; 3. Hermits and Ascetics: What led to the rise of holy men in Egypt and Syria? How did ascetics and monks contribute to the Christianization of the Roman world? What was the role of these men in Christian society?; 4. Monastic Communities: Why did Pachomius form the first monasteries? How did their mission differ from that of the solitary holy man? How did the monastic communities act to convert populations and stimulate social and economic life?; 5. Pilgrimages and Quest for the Holy: What was the importance of pilgrimages? How were these expressions of a new Christian society? How did they contribute to redefining the landscape of the Mediterranean world in a Christian context? What were the economic implications?; 6. Church Architecture: How did Christians evolve the basilican and centrally planned church forms out of Roman architecture? How important were Jewish synagogues such as the one at Sardes as prototypes? How much did the emperors contribute to this process? What were the visual and religious purposes behind basilican and centrally planned churches?; 7. Monastic Architecture: How did monastic communities evolve into major complexes of Christian architecture? What was the purpose and function of buildings? What impact did these complexes have on Christianization?; 8. Creation of Christian Iconography: How were decorative arts (mosaics and sacred ornaments) used for spiritual and ritual needs of new faith? How did they assist in Christianizing cities? How important were they in Christian ceremonies?

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13. THE FINAL DEFINITION OF DOGMA, 325-451 A.D.

Readings:: Pelikan, ECT, pp. 171-277; Jones, CCE, pp. 117-168; Brown, BS, pp. 366-448

What were the major issues raised by Arius in the fourth century? How important were Constantine and Constantius II in issues over Arianism? What were the crucial theological issues debated in the fifth century Why did were Christological arguments issues so critical? Was Nestorius and the doctrine of the "indwelling Logos" heretical? What was the effect of the Formula of Reunion in 433? What led to the Monophysite controversy? What influenced the decisions at Ephesus in 449 and Chalcedon in 451? Why was reunion so difficult after 451? What were the political and social factors behind these disputes?

Reports:: 1. The Council of Nicaea: Athanasius What was the position argued by Athanasius in 325? Was it the superior position and who supported him? Did he resolve fundamental issues raised by Origen and the Alexandrian school? What accounts for its ultimate success?; 2. The Council of Nicaea: Arius What was the position of Ar-ius? How is he the heir of Origen? Why was he defeated in 325? What accounts for the later success of Arianism in the fourth century?; 3. Athanasius and Constantius II: Was Athanasius decisive in championing the Nicene cause? How important was imperial backing for the initial success of the Arianism? What was the state of Christian unity at the accession of Julian?; 4. The Emperors and Doctrine: What was the role of emperors in defining doctrine in the fifth and sixth centuries? Why was Marcian so important in 451? How did emperors such as Zeno or Justinian view their roles? How important were the emperors in Constantinople in defining dogma? What considerations moved them?; 5. The Great Patriarchs: Why did the four Petrine patriarchs (Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, and Antioch) wield great political power? How important were their wealth, patronage, and followings of monks in sustaining the great political and theological claims? How bitter were the rivalries among them?; 6. Nestorius at Ephesus: What were the main features of theology of Nestorius? On what grounds did Nestorius' doctrines deserve condemnation in 431? Was the Formula of Reunion (433) a sensible compromise?; 7. Cyril at Ephesus: Why was Nestorius' doctrine of the indwelling logos held heretical? What were the main tenents of Cyril of Alexandria? Did Cyril give Nestorius a fair hearing?; 8. Chalcedon: the Orthodox Was the Chalcedonian Creed a polit-ical compromise or the summation of orthodox belief? How sound a definition was the Tome of Leo I? Was the theology of Cyril truly accommondated in the final profession of faith? Should this creed be revised?; 9. Chalcedon: Monophysites What were the virtues to the Monophysite definition? Why was Eutyches and the Monophysite doctrine condemned in 451? What were the consequences?; 10. The Search for Unity, 451-565 Why were later imperial efforts doomed to failure? When did the split of the Orthodox and Monophysite become of inevitable? Who offered the better policy, Zeno (and his Henoticon) or Justinian?

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Dr. Kenneth W. Harl
Office: History 211 (504)862-8621
Fax: (504) 862-8739
Home: (504) 866-5392

Last updated 03/19/98
by Annette Lindblom