THE GREEK MIRACLE, EXHIBITION, March 26-28, 1993

LATE ARCHAIC SCULPTURE (535-480 B.C.)

1. KOUROS (Youth), 530 B.C., Temple of Apollo, Mt. Ptoon, Boeotia.

Greeks created free standing sculpture (female and male) carved out of limestone or marble by adapting in the seventh century B.C. Egyptian models. Egyptian figures (rendered as couples customarily) were stiff, rigid, decorative, subordinate elements of tombs and temples rather than true sculpture.

From 650 B.C. to 500 B.C. Greek artists perfected rendering human form in ever more relaxed and naturalistic (if idealized) forms, producing draped female figures KORAI and nude males KOUROI--the first conscious efforts to depict individuals. VISIT REGULAR GALLERIES of MMA for superb Korai and Kouroi (notably fine pieces from Cyprus) that document evolution of naturalist style for independent female and male figures.

The oligarchic commercial cities of southern Greece, notably CORINTH and AEGINA on the Saronic Gulf, the Ionian centers SAMOS and EPHESUS, and, above all, ATHENS under the Peisistratid tyrants funded sculptors, artists, and architects who produced the glories of Archaic art in the two generations before the Persian Wars (540-480 B.C.).

2. HEAD OF WARRIOR, c. 490-480 B.C.; from East Pedimental Figures depicting Heracles' capture of Troy of TEMPLE OF APHAIA on isle of AEGINA (Dorian naval rival of Athens). Figure has a suffered an imaginative restoration of the nineteenth century, but it represents the fully developed stiff poses found on archaic relief and pedimental sculpture. Originally fully painted figures were seen from below in stylized combat or ritual scenes, virtually three dimensional renditions of scenes described in Homeric epic verse.

3. BRONZE HEAD, c. 490-480 B.C., Athens, Acropolis; head of lifesized bronze statue. Bronze statues (which seldom survive save as Roman marable copies) decorated most shrines and public places in Greek cities by the late Archaic age; bronze was the preferred medium and, most likely, reflected more innovative techniques than conventional relief sculpture surviving from temples.

CLASSICAL BREAKTHROUGH (480-470 B.C.)

4. RUNNING MAIDEN, c. 490-480 B.C., Eleusis

5. Statue of Youth, KRITIOS BOY, c. 480 B.C.

These two masterpieces mark the decisive change in Western sculpture. The RUNNING MAIDEN (possibly HECATE) was part of a relief program at the shrine of Demeter and Persephone at ELEUSIS (24 miles west of Athens). The dramatic use of drapery conveying motion and pose anticipates the breakthrough in free standing sculpture. The KRITIOS BOY (possibly THESEUS who was promoted as the eponymous hero of the Athenian democracy over Heracles, patron of the Peisistratid tyrants) is the first example of free standing sculpture in contraposto. These two pieces together mark the emergence of free-standing sculpture that was rendered in ever more naturalistic and varied poses. Henceforth, Western sculptural (and probably contemporary painting) turned to the depiction of the individual human form.

6. STATUE OF ATHENA, Athens, Acropolis, c. 480 B.C., marable. Serene, heavy figure more typical of cult figures, but this a signed work by EUENOR (with donor Angelitos). Athena wears the typical PEPLOS (woolen tunic) of female figures, but the transluscent drapery allows for complete modeling of the female form (for female figures were not rendered in nude in fifth century B.C.). This statue marks a decisive shift among Athenian artists who experimented with a wide range of natural poses and emotions of human figure, female as well as male, rather than producing ritual and public work.

7. RELIEF, CONTEMPLATIVE ATHENA, c. 470-460 B.C., Acropolis, from stele or pillar, probably VOTIVE offering. Athena wears her peplos and Corinthian helment, leaning on spear in deep thought in one. This masterpiece is the epitome of the SEVERE STYLE in Athenian sculpture that combined the dignified, traditional restraint of Archaic masters with the naturalistic rendition of the human form. Artists have mastered techniques of rendering foreshortening and in suggesting retreating depth. These techniques are applied to produce superb private funerary reliefs less than two generations later (nos. 28-34).

HIGH CLASSICAL STYLE (470-430 B.C.)

The exhibition assembles choice examples of relief and free standing sculpture as well as bronze statuettes (based on monumental prototypes) to illustrate the range of depictions on heroic nude male (often in athletic contests) and draped female figures. By 454 B.C. Athens had transformed the DELIAN LEAGUE into a tribute-paying empire, and PERICLES sponsored major building programs at Athens and the Athenian shrine at ELEUSIS (Demeter & Persephone) as part of his democratic reforms. The Athenian democracy thus provided steady employment for many architects and sculptors who organized the leading workshops in Greece. The PARTHENON, built by Mnesicles and Ictinus, was the triumph of the Classical Doric Temple. It along with lesser shrines and the PROPYLAEA (monumental gateway with finest paintings and sculpture of the Classical age) crowned the Athenian Acropolis. The Panhellenic shrines, DELPHI (oracle of Apollo) and OLYMPIA (the shrine of Zeus), too provided patronage, often drawing upon Athenian trained artists.

8. CHATSWORTH APOLLO, Bronze, c. 460 B.C., Tamassos, Cyprus (shrine of Apollo). Head of a life-sized bronze statue of Apollo that is a masterpiece of combining separate casting of elements into monumental, naturalistic figure. Artist is unknown, but presence of such a masterpiece at a sanctuary in conservative Cyprus testifies to the rapid spread of Classical canons of sculpture (aided by political and commercial links between Athens and the Cypriot cities of Salamis and Paphnos).

9. HERACLES RECEIVING GOLDEN APPLES OF HESPERIDES, Olympia, c. 460 B.C., METOPE RELIEF of Doric Temple of Zeus at Olympia.

This is one of twelve metopes depicting over east and west entrances the LABORS OF HERACLES. The design of the figures is a simple one of three verticals, but the dignified simplicity is overpowering (especially when seen from below). Athena (on viewer's left) stands behind Heracles who is supporting the heavens, while ATLAS returns with the golden apples. The myth, sculptural design, and poses are traditional, but the figures are rendered in superb naturalistic form.

10. BRONZE STATUE, HORSE, Olympia, c. 470-460 B.C. is part of a team of a quadriga and charioteer donated by a victor in the Olympic games. Anatomical rendering of horses show major advance over the stiff relief sculptures of Archaic Age.

11-20. Bronze Statuettes, c. 460-450 B.C., are contemporary with the masterpieces at Athens and the major Panhellenic sanctuaries known from Roman copies and literary sources. These are VOTIVE OFFERINGS given in thanks to pledges to gods on behalf of requests (described as relationship "I give that you may give" or do ut des). The selection is representative of standard poses of monumental male and female figures that graced the sacred and public spaces of all Greek cities by the mid-fifth century B.C.

MALE FIGURES:

11. Diskobolos (Discus Thrower), c. 480-460 B.C., Peloponnesus. The athlete in pentathlon at Olympic Games is performing first motion of casting discus. The theme was turned into a superb full statue by MYRON, sculptor c. 460-440 B.C., whose version is only known from Roman copies.

12. Athlete offering libation, c. 460 B.C., DELPHI. Standard offering of oil from patera (sacrifical bowl) in thanks for victory (signfied by headband).

13. Heroic Heracles, c. 460 B.C., Mantinea, Arcadia, from central Peloponnesus. The articulated musculature and curly hairs show a "fussy" style probably copied after monumental depictions.

14. Dionysus, c. 460 B.C., Olympia, god of wine, theater, and human emotions (counterpart to rational Apollo) is shown as beardless, almost effeminate in appearance. He wears laced boots and traveler's cloak and carries kantharos (drinking vessel) associate with god. Dionsysus, ever the mysterious traveler, was considered a foreign god (of Thracian or Phrygian origin) whose cult was received into cities in the sixth century B.C.; the wild, orgiastic rites and reception of the initial cult are captured in Euripides' Bacchae.

15. Youth with Ball, c. 450 B.C., from Argolid (Peloponnesus). This common game of boys with ball and stick (possibly similar to hockey) was a favorite theme of VASE PAINTING. This is a rare sculptural depiction. The game was presumably popular among upper class youths, and was possibly identified with the training of youths associated with the disciplines of Sparta and Dorian Crete.

16. Zeus, c. 450 B.C., DODONA, Epirus. Mature pose of Zeus with thunderbolt in typical cultic pose. Dodona was site of ancient oracle whereby Zeus spoke through the oak groves. The Argead kings of Macedon, especially Philip II (359-336 B.C.) and Alexander the Great (336-323 B.C.) claimed descent from Zeus of Dodona and hence sported acorns on ritual crowns.

FEMALE FIGURES

17. Female Figure (goddess Aphrodite or possibly Dione, mother of Athena); from Epirus, c. 460 B.C.. The figure perhaps held dove, sacred to Aphrodite and associated with love and prophecy.

18. Young Woman, possibly in prayer with offering, Olympia, c. 460-450 B.C. Other poses suggested include woman at spinning, but the statuette points to the number of possible depictions of woman in art in the fifth century B.C. (also paralleled in vase painting). The depictions and artistic conventions require new studies from the perspective of social history.

19. Mirror, Athens, c. 480-460 B.C. Aphrodite attended by Erotes (= Cupids) in standard pose of decorative arts.

20. Running Maenad, c. 450 B.C., DODONA, sanctuary of Zeus. Ecstatic female follower of Dionysus (whose cult was originally restricted largely to women). She hold the krater (mixing bowl) for adding water to wine (in proportions of 5 parts water to wine lest one end up bonkers like poor king Cleomenes I of Sparta). The statuette shows a fine use of drapery (goat skin sacred to Dionysus) to render motion.

21. HORSEMEN, PARTHENON FRIEZE, 442-438 B.C., "Elgin Marbles," a panel from the continuous 524 foot frieze gracing the inner chamber of the Parthenon behind its outer colonnade. The scene forms a full program depicting the sacred procession of the cult statue of Athena (in new peplos) performed every fourth year in the GREAT PANATHENEA, the central civic festival in Athens. The horsemen are aristocratic youths of the second Solonian propertied class (hippeis) whose position in the procession reflected social importance. Succeeding panels show chariots, water carriers, and musicians as part of this procession.

The use of foreshorting and depth and overlapping figures to convey a sense of motion and perspective is superb. It is all more the remarkable since the figures of this supreme achievement of frieze sculpture were carved in place directly into the architecture (rather than on the ground and then fitted into place). The frieze stood as the visual testimony to the religious and artistic triumph of Periclean Athens, school of Greece and seat of an Aegean empire.

22. THESEUS, c. 450-425 B.C., pedimental figure of temple of ERETRIA (on island of Euboea and Athenian cleurchy); figure was plundered and recycled into temple of Apollo at Rome. Theseus is presumably in combat against the AMAZONS (from Pontus at the southeastern corner of the Black Sea). The scene depicts one of a number of mythological combats (including struggle of Lapiths and Centaurs and the Gigantomachy or combat between the Olympian gods and Titan) that were used to symbolize victory of reason over chaos. In contrat to comic strip Roman historical narrative, Greeks preferred mythological, allegorical, and cosmic celebrations on public works.

LATER CLASSICAL SCULPTURE (430-390 B.C.)

The Peloponnesian War (431-404 B.C.) witnessed new artistic styles; the Erechtheum and Temple of Athena Nike on the Acropolis were constructed in the Ionic order in 425-410 B.C., and their sculptures reflect the ever more naturalistic styles.

23. FEMALE HEAD, c. 425-415 B.C., Athenian agora, part of full length draped statue; note grooves for attachment of jewelry and inlays (which were removable for use as money in crisis).

24. NIKE UNBINDING SANDAL, c. 410 B.C., Temple of Athena Nike, Acropolis, Athens. This is the masterpiece of new dramatic rendition of female figures in Ionic style (often called the "wet look") allowing for depiction of female form (leading to the female nudes of the fourth century B.C. and Hellenistic age). The goddess is removing scandals before passing beyond the TEMENOS, the sacred boundary marking off hallowed ground.

25. Statue of Nereid, c. 390 B.C. One of the fifty daughters of Nereus in a dramatic, windblow drapery, probably part of a statue group in the Athenian agora (market). The almost baroque style anticipates the dramatic poses of Hellenistic sculpture. Compare the development to no. 25.

26. Votive Relief, c. 410-390 B.C.; Nea Phaleron (harbor), in sanctuary of River-god Cephissus; dedicated by Cephisodotus. Splendid use of techniques of public frieze work applied to private monument; one side depicts Artemis and hero Echelos who is presented by Artemis to Cephissus and river nymphs. The reverse is perhaps a scene of abduction by Echelos.

27-33. GRAVE STELAI, errected in marble to the deceased since the mid-fifth century B.C., are superb renditions of domestic and private scenes of the deceased. Most of STELAI survive from the KERAMEIKOS, potters' quarter, just outside the main western gate on the road linking Athens to Eleusis (and the route of religious processions). The stelai decorated one of the loviest and most serene streets in the Greek world. The destruction and desecration of the tombs by Macedonian soldiers on orders of Philip V in 201 B.C. and by Roman legionaries of Sulla in 87-86 B.C. were condemned as impious barbarity.

27. Little Girl, Paros, c. 450-440 B.C. (island in central Aegean famed for marble); style comparable to Parthenon friezes and clearly work of an Athenian trained sculptor but for lovely domestic use; deceased girl holds her pet doves in quiet setting.

28. Stele of Eupheros, c. 430-420 B.C., Athens. Young man with strigil for scraping off olive oil and dirt after athletic games.

29. Cat Stele, c. 420-410 B.C., Athens. Youth with cage and small bird bids farewell to little boy holding cat. Since the inscription is missing, it is ambiguous as to which of the two is deceased.

30. Seated Man & Youth with Box, SAMOS, Chora Cemetery, c. 420 B.C. Youth is making typical dedication to grave stelai, a square box with two rolls of cloth.

31. Youth, Dog, and Man, Athens, c. 400 B.C. Without inscription, scene of mourning is uncertain (most likely a father and son) but gestures suggest link of living and death.

32. STELE OF HEGESO, c. 400 B.C., Athens. The deceased Hegeso (seated woman) receiving maidservant with jewelry-box in a daily scene but the tilt of her head and grave expression convey a sense of sorrow and passing typical of stelai of the fourth century B.C.

33. STELE OF KTESILAOS & THEANO, c. 400-390 B.C.; the grave of a young couple (who perhaps died at different times). Furrowed brows and distant gazes convey a sense of loss.