Icons and the act of intercession have been fundamental to Christian worship since the fourth century A.D. In 726 the Byzantine emperor Leo III (717-741) initiated one of the most important disputes in Christian worship when he issued his edict calling for the removal of all icons, portable as well as those in mosaic and fresco. The ensuing Iconoclastic Controversy (927-843) tore apart Byzantine society, and had repercussions across Christendom that marked this controversy as the most important theological event between the Council of Chalcedon and the Reformation. Scholars have hitherto concentrated on the origins and initial stages of the controversy, but little attention has been paid to the restoration of icons. Yet, in the aftermath of the controversy the use of icons was vastly expanded (and redefined) in ritual, in decorative arts of every description, and even in public documents such as coins and lead seals. I propose to examine the consequences of the triumph of the religious image in Byzantine society and worship in the ninth through the eleventh centuries.

Foremost was the image of Mary Theotokos (Mother of God), hailed as the patroness of the imperial capital Constantinople ever since the Avar siege in 626, for her most famed icon, the Hodegetria reputedly painted by St. Luke, was paraded around the city walls to ward off invaders. Her removal from public worship shocked many devout Christians, and the promotion of Mary Theotokos was central to the restoration of icons after 843. Empresses from the ninth through eleventh century played a decisive role in this program of religious restoration. Theodora, mother and regent of the notorious Michael III (842-867), engineered and presided over the Synod of Constantinople that restored icons in 843. The Macedonian regent empresses Zoe Carbospina, mother of Constantine VII (913-947) and Theophano, mother of Basil II (963-1025) and Constantine VIII (963-1026), helped make the icons the religion of victory and of a great dynasty. The empresses Zoe and Theodora (1025-1056), daughters of Constantine VIII, patronized artists who created the finest examples of the icons of Mary Theotokos.

I propose to write my Honors thesis to fulfill my majors in Classics and History under the supervision of Professor Kenneth W. Harl. Such a project requires me to synthesize my studies in Classical languages, Ancient and Byzantine History, Archaeology, and Medieval Art History. Furthermore, in the summer of 1999, I had the unique opportunity to study with my advisor Professor Harl on an excavation in Turkey where I assisted him in the identification and preparation for publication of Hellenistic, Roman, and Byzantine coins found in the excavations of Metropolis. In particular, we shall be publishing jointly a hoard of 191 Roman coins from a bath complex of Metropolis. Professor Harl has invited me to return with him to Turkey next summer so that I may continue my work on coins, for I plan Numismatics as one of specialities in graduate school. We shall be working on coins excavated by the Turkish archaeological team at Metropolis and by the American team working at Gordion. Furthermore, the curator of Byzantine coins in the Museum of Anatolian Civilizations at Ankara, Dr. Sena Mutlu, and Professor Harl will be publishing a major hoard of 3,600 copper Byzantine folles of the tenth and eleventh centuries. These so-called anonymous Byzantine coins, struck between the reigns of John I (969-976) and Alexius I (1081-1118), carry in lieu of the imperial name and portrait the images of Mary Theotokos or Christ Pantocrator so that these humble coins are a unique source for the dissemination and popularity of religious images during the high Byzantine age. Under the direction of Professor Mutlu and Harl, I shall have an opportunity otherwise impossible for an undergraduate to work with original material relevant to my thesis, and to gain expertise in Byzantine coins and iconography, for Dr. Mutlu is recognized for her command of Byzantine costume and regalia.

Last summer, I also accompanied Professor Harl in his study of the main frescoes and mosaics of Hagia Sophia and the Church of the Savior in Chora in Istanbul (Constantinople) and the frescoes of the rock cut churches of Cappadocia, notably at Göreme and in the valleys of the Soanl and Peristrema (Ihlara). I shall be returning to these and other churches early next summer as a member of the academic excursion to Anatolia led by Professor Harl (May 22-June 16, 2000). Through Professor Hal, I have also met Professor Robert Ousterhout, the leading authority on Byzantine architecture and at the University of Illinois, whose work at Çanl Kilise is fundamental to dating the churches of Cappadocia. In Istanbul, I shall have the opportunity to meet Professor Ousterhout once again, for he is directing the restoration of the Comnenian church of the Pantocrator, the premier imperial church in the Crusader era. I also plan to attend an orthodox service at St. George's, seat of the Patriarchate, to see icons in use.

This thesis is ambitious, for I shall base it on literary sources, coins, visual arts, and direct experience and research with leading scholars. The training will prove invaluable for my future academic career, for I envision this thesis as the springboard to my graduate studies.