From Central America, A Nation Divided, 3rd ed., byRalph Lee Woodward, Jr. (Copyright, Oxford University Press, 1998).

Political Chronology, 1963-1998 (Political Chronology for pre-1963 remains as in 2nd edition, with only minor revisions).

1963-71 Military removes Villeda Morales and returns Conservatives to control in Honduras. Col. Osvaldo López Arellano establishes mild military dictatorship (1965-71).

1964 British Honduras gains limited self-rule, with steps toward absolute independence. Panamanian riots against U.S. sovereignty in Canal Zone bring new negotiations on canal question.

1966 Hernández Martínez murdered on his Honduras estate in labor dispute. J. C. Méndez Montenegro elected President of Guatemala.

1967 Heart attack kills Luis Somoza, leaving Anastasio ("Tachito") Somoza in control of Nicaragua.

1967-72 PCN continues military rule in El Salvador under Col. Fidel Sánchez Hernández.

1969 Brief war between Honduras and El Salvador stems from demographic problems and border dispute; Common Market damaged.

1970 José Figueres returns to presidency of Costa Rica.

1971 Pressing economic problems aggravated by war with El Salvador result in a national unity coalition of Conservative and Liberal parties in Honduras; Dr. Ramón Ernesto Cruz elected president; Jacobo Arbenz dies in Mexico City.

1972 PCN maintains power in El Salvador against strong challenge of Christian Democrat José Napoleón Duarte. Earthquake devastates Managua, leading to tightening of Somoza dictatorship in Nicaragua. López Arellano takes over as President of Honduras again (December).

1973 British Honduras' name formally changed to Belize.

1974 Daniel Oduber wins Costa Rican presidency, continuing Figueres' PLN in power. General Kjell Laugerud García wins Guatemalan presidency. Tachito Somoza wins another term as Nicaraguan president. Hurricane Fifi wreaks havoc on Honduran north coast.

1975 Col. Juan Albert Melgar Castro leads coup in April which overthrows López Arellano in Honduras. Guerrilla Army of the Poor (EGP) launches guerrilla activity in northern Quiché Department, Guatemala.

1976 Earthquake causes massive damage to central Guatemala and western Honduras; less serious damage to El Salvador. PCN sweeps Salvadoran congressional and municipal elections, as most of opposition refused to participate; leftist guerrillas, led by People's Revolutionary Army (ERP) grows. FSLN founder, Carlos Fonseca Amador, killed in clashes with Nicaraguan Guardia Nacional. Panamanian strong-man Omar Torrijos visits Cuba for talks with Fidel Castro, putting pressure on U.S. regarding Panama Canal.

1977 Guatemala rejects U.S. military aid when Jimmy Carter links it to human rights observance. U.N. General Assembly passes resolution favoring Belize independence by vote of 126-4, with 13 abstentions. Nicaraguan Catholic hierarchy joins criticism of government for human rights violations as Sandinistas step up attacks. Gen. Carlos H. Romero wins Salvadoran presidential election, denounced as fraudulent by opposition; Archbishop Oscar Romero boycotts his inauguration. U.S. and Panama sign new treaties to turn over Panama Canal to Panama on Dec. 31, 1999; treaties ratified by Panamanian Plebiscite on Oct. 23.

1978 Assassination (Jan. 10) of Pedro Joaquín Chamorro, editor of La Prensa (Managua) sparks general uprising against Somoza dynasty; FSLN forms mass organizations to mobilize Nicaraguan population against Somoza; Edén Pastora (Comandante Zero) captures the National Palace (Aug. 22). Gen. Romeo Lucas García wins Guatemalan presidency in closely controlled election. Bloodless coup in Honduras replaces President Melgar with junta headed by Gen. Policarpo Paz García. PCN easily wins legislative and municipal elections in El Salvador as opposition boycotts election. U.S. ratifies Panama Canal treaties; Minister of Education Aristedes Royo succeeds Omar Torrijos as President of Panama, but Torrijos remains head of National Guard. Rodrigo Carazo Odio (Unity Coalition) wins Costa Rican presidency; Robert Vesco is denied Costa Rican citizenship and forbidden to return to that country.

1979 National Guard forces kill Bill Stewart (ABC-TV) on camera in Managua, causing increased hostility toward Somoza government in U.S.; full-scale Sandinista offensive begins on May 29; general strike closes 80 percent of Nicaraguan businesses; Somoza resigns on July 17; Somoza's successor, Francisco Urcuyo Malianos, flees to Guatemala on July 18; Sandinistas seize government on July 19, with Sandinista-controlled junta installed on following day (Daniel Ortega Saavedra, Alfonso Robelo Callejas, Sergio Ramírez, Violeta Barrios de Chamorro, and Moisés Hassan Morales). Reformist officers headed by Cols. Adolfo Majano and Jaime Abdul Gutiérrez overthrow Romero government in El Salvador (Oct. 15). Labor unrest in Honduras causes cancellation of elections scheduled for April 1980. Transfer of Panama Canal Zone from U.S. to Panama (Oct. 1).

1980 Civilian progressives Guillermo Ungo and Román Mayorga resign from Salvadoran junta in January; El Salvador nationalizes the coffee export industry, but Supreme Court will declare this unconstitutional on 28 July 1989; Archbishop Romero, after writing an open letter to Jimmy Carter asking U.S. not to send arms to Salvadoran government, is assassinated on Mar. 24; Democratic Revolutionary Front (FDR) formed by three principal leftist political organizations; J. N. Duarte (PDC) is named to the junta in March and replaces Col. Majano as its president on Dec. 22, but without command of the army; El Salvador and Honduras agree to a peace treaty formally ending the 1969 "soccer war," although border disputes remain. Sandinistas move Nicaragua toward the left and U.S. accuses them of aiding Salvadoran guerrillas; Argentine radicals assassinate Anastasio Somoza Debayle in Paraguay. Continued political polarization in Guatemala with widespread violence,, as Vice-President Francisco Villagrán Kramer resigns in opposition to right-wing violations of human rights.

1981 U.S. resumes military sales to Guatemala, sends 55 military advisers to El Salvador, suspends economic assistance programs to Nicaragua, and begins CIA support of counterrevolutionaries (FDN). Sandinistas consolidate control of Nicaragua, as junta is reduced to three members. Belize gains independence (Sept. 21) within British Commonwealth; British forces remain to protect it from Guatemala. Dr. Roberto Suazo Córdova (PL) elected President of Honduras. Gen. Torrijos dies in small plane crash in Panama; after some political turmoil, Torrijos' security chief, Gen. Manuel Antonio Noriega, emerges as Commander of the Panamanian Defense Force (formerly National Guard) and Panama's new strong man.

1982 Costa Ricans elect Luis Alberto Monge (PLN) as President; U.S. aid helps Costa Rica meet foreign debt problems. Military ousts Gen. Lucas in Guatemala (Mar. 23) and installs Gen. Efraín Ríos Montt as President (June 9); Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity (URNG) formed as umbrella organization for rebel forces. Rightist coalition headed by Major Roberto D'Aubisson defeats Duarte's PDC in El Salvador, and Alvaro Magaña Borjo replaces Duarte as President; D'Aubisson becomes president of the Assembly. U.S. hostility toward Sandinista increases as U.S. aids contras and cooperates with Argentine-trained Honduran Defense Minister, Gustavo Alvarez Martínez, in Honduran military buildup.

1983 Visit to Central America of Pope John Paul II marred by an ugly confrontation with Sandinistas, but Pope confirms Arturo Rivera y Damas as Archbishop of El Salvador, a blow to Salvadoran rightists; visit to Guatemala strained by Ríos Montt's execution of six guerrillas on eve of Pope's arrival. Military coup in August ousts Ríos Montt and installs Defense Minister Oscar Humberto Mejía Victores as President of Guatemala. Leader of Honduran Communist Party assassinated in San Pedro Sula (Jan. 29); U.S. military buildup in Honduras increased. Ronald Reagan announces his Caribbean Basin Initiative in speech to OAS, as U.S. accelerates its opposition to Sandinistas and supports resurrection of Central American Defense Council (CONDECA), essentially to back contras, who invade Nicaragua from Costa Rica and Honduras; diplomats of Mexico, Venezuela, Panama, and Colombia meet (January 8-9) on Contadora Island, Panama, to seek solution to Central American crises. Split in Popular Vanguard over Nicaragua question results in Manuel Mora leaving to form People's Party (PPC)in Costa Rica.

1984 U.S. fleets operating off both coasts of Nicaragua and U.S. advisers and troops are in Honduras, participating in maneuvers; Nicaragua agrees to Contadora proposal, but U.S. blocks it; Daniel Ortega easily wins election as Nicaragua's president (Nov.); church-state relations worsen in Nicaragua as Sandinistas expel ten foreign priests and as Archbishop Miguel Obando y Bravo supports opposition. Duarte defeats D'Aubisson in Salvadoran presidential election (May) and U.S. resumes military aid to El Salvador. Edén Pastora (ARDE) wounded when a bomb explodes in his La Penca, Costa Rica, headquarters (May). Younger military officers oust Gustavo Alvarez in Honduras following growing anti-U.S. demonstrations. In first Panamanian presidential election since 1968, 82-year-old Arnulfo Arias Madrid at head of anti-government coalition claims victory, but the election tribunal declared Nicolás Ardito-Barletta (PRD) the winner; when Panama Canal Commission (5 U.S. and 4 Panamanian members) extends special privileges to U.S. employees and operators of the Canal, Panama accuses U.S. of violating 1978 treaty by discriminating against local workers. Constitutional Convention convenes in Guatemala. UDP wins election in Belize and Manuel Esquivel becomes Prime Minister.

1985 Military agrees to free elections in Guatemala. U.S. declares trade embargo against Nicaragua, and U.S. Congress approves $27 million in "humanitarian" aid for Nicaraguan contras. Violence increases in El Salvador; 4 U.S. Marines killed by FMLN; President Duarte's daughter kidnapped and then released in exchange for FMLN prisoners; U.S. forces clandestinely involved as combatants as well as advisers against FMLN.

1986 Civilian government restored to Guatemala with inauguration of Vinicio Cerezo (January), elected in October 1985, under new Constitution; Department of Technical Investigation (DIT) dissolved in Guatemala, many of its members joining National Police. Oscar Arias Sánchez (PLN) elected President of Costa Rica (Feb.). $100 million contra aid package approved by US Congress in June; Iran-Contra scandal begins in November. Earthquake destroys much of San Salvador.

1987 Oscar Arias' Peace Plan (Esquipulas II) adopted by Central American presidents; implementation begins slowly as U.S. attempts to undermine plan, fearing that Sandinistas would be left in power. Rising opposition in Panama to Gen. Noriega as businessmen organize National Civic Crusade (CCN), but business and school strikes fail to bring him down; U.S. suspends aid to Panama (Aug. 8).

1988 U.S. Congress in January denies Reagan's request for more aid to the Nicaraguan contras; Hurricane Joan (22 Oct.) causes $800 million damage and leaves 200,000 homeless in Nicaragua. ARENA wins Salvadoran legislative and municipal elections, as PDC becomes badly divided between factions loyal to Julio Rey Prendes and Fidel Chávez Mena. U.S. consulate in Tegucigalpa burned in protests against extradition of a narcotrafficker to U.S. A U.S. grand jury in Miami (Feb.) indicts Manuel Noriega narcotics and racketeering violations; Noriega ousts President Eric Delvalle (Feb. 26), replacing him with Manuel Solís Palma, although U.S. continues to recognize Delvalle; Noriega crushes popular resistance and forms "Dignity Battalions" in March; U.S. sends 1,300 troops to reenforce 10,000 already in Panama Canal Zone in April and begins economic boycott of Panama, as well as covert destabilization operations.

1989 Alfredo Cristiani (ARENA) wins Salvadoran presidential election (19 Mar.); inaugurated on June 1; Massive U.S. aid to El Salvador continues; FMLN launches major offensive on Nov. 11, but is beaten back by heavy government counterattacks, with heavy loss of life. Government troops murder Rector of Universidad Centroamericana, Ignacio Ellacuría, S.J., five other Jesuits, and their housekeeper and her daughter on Nov. 15. Gen. Gustavo Alvarez Martínez, former Honduran army chief, assassinated; Rafael Leonardo Callejas (PN) wins Honduran presidential election (26 Nov.). U.S. Congress (13 April) approves $49.8 million of "non-lethal" aid to the Nicaraguan Contras in plan to keep the Nicaraguan rebels "armed but inactive"; Oliver North convicted of charges of deceiving Congress, shredding evidence, and taking a bribe (4 May); broad opposition coalition (UNO) organized in June to oppose Sandinistas, and U.S. National Endowment for Democracy provides $9 million to finance UNO candidates. Widespread fraud in Panamanian election denies victory to opposition candidate, Guillermo Endara (7 May); elections are finally annulled and a Council of State dissolves National Assembly and names Gen. Francisco Rodríguez as provisional president (31 Aug.), but Noriega remains real power; U.S. sends 2,000 more troops to Canal Zone, followed by a series of protests and incidents involving U.S. troops; Panamanian National Assembly declares war on U.S. on 15 Dec. and names Noriega as "maximum leader of the struggle for liberation;" U.S. invades Panama in "Operation Just Cause" on 20 Dec. and establishes Guillermo Endara as president, as Papal nunciate grants Noriega asylum. George Price becomes Prime Minister again as PUP wins Belizean elections (4 Sept.).

1990 Violeta Barrios de Chamorro (UNO) wins Nicaraguan presidential election (25 Feb.) and takes office on 25 April. Substantial progress made toward implementation of Peace Accords in Nicaragua, El Salvador, and Guatemala. Costa Ricans elect Rafael Angel ("Junior") Calderón Fournier as President (5 Feb.); Noriega surrenders to US troops (Jan. 3). "Banana war" between United Brands and Independent Honduran banana growers (CAGSA). Efraín Ríos Montt declared ineligible as candidate for Guatemalan presidency (12 Oct.), resulting in Jorge Serrano (MAS) and Jorge Carpio (UCN) gaining runoff positions in Nov. 11 election. Juan José Arévalo and José N. Duarte die.

1991 Serrano (MAS) wins election runoff (Jan. 6) and Guatemalan presidency, takes office on Jan. 11; Guatemala recognizes and establishes diplomatic relations with Belize (Sept. 11). Central American Parliament inaugurated on Oct. 28, with Roberto Carpio of Guatemala as President; Enrique Bermudez Varela, commander of Somoza's National Guard assassinated (Feb. 16).

1992 Peace accords implemented in El Salvador and Nicaragua with disarmament of rebel forces and reorganization of national police forces and armies; FMLN becomes a legal political party in El Salvador (Sept. 1). Ilsa Díaz of Honduras elected President of the Central American Parliament (Oct. 22); Presidents of Guatemala, El Salvador, and Honduras sign Guatemala Declaration, agreeing to move toward formation of a Central American Federation (Oct. 30); Nicaragua later endorses the proposal, while Costa Rica rejects it. El Salvador disbands the U.S.-trained Atlacatl Battalion of the Salvadoran Army, responsible for the El Mozote massacre of 1981 and the 1989 murder of the six Jesuits at the UCA.

1993 Implementation of Peace Accords continues slowly in El Salvador. Some progress toward a peace agreement in Guatemala; but on May 25 President Serrano attempts to establish dictatorial control in a "self-coup," but massive protests causes him to flee the country on June 2; Guatemalan Congress elects Ramiro de León Carpio as new provisional president on June 6. Central American Integration System (SICA) established (Feb. 1) as successor to SIECA. Guatemala, El Salvador and Honduras sign "Northern Triangle" integration pact, allowing free transit of goods and people from 1 April 1993 forward; Nicaragua subsequently joins as these four states form a commercial and political block aimed at revitalized Central American integration. Honduras converts the military National Investigation Division (DNI) to a civilian-run Department of Criminal Investigation (DIC); Carlos Roberto Reina (PL) elected President of Honduras (Nov.). Serious split among Sandinistas in Nicaragua; UDP wins Belize elections and Manuel Esquivel again becomes Prime Minister.

1994 José María Figueres (PLN) wins Costa Rican presidency (6 Feb.) and takes office on May 8. Armando Calderón Sol (ARENA) elected President of El Salvador (April); Salvadoran Legislative Assembly elects new Supreme Court in July as demanded by the U.N. Truth Commission. Ernesto Pérez Balladares (PRD), wins presidency of Panama (May); U.S. begins withdrawal of troops from Panama, to be completed by end of 1999.

1995 Guatemalan government and URNG agree on declaration of "Identity and Rights of Indigenous People"(Mar. 31); Rigoberta Menchú leads effort to register indigenous voters; Jennifer Harbury forces full investigation of disappearance of her husband, guerrilla leader Efraín Bamaca Velásquez, and murder of innkeeper Michael DiVine; investigation reveals CIA involvement and payments to Guatemalan military. Amendments to Nicaragua's 1987 Constitution end conflict between executive and legislature (4 July).

1996 Alvaro Arzú (PAN) wins runoff election for presidency of Guatemala (Jan. 7); Arzú purges half of Guatemala's high-ranking army officers; Guatemalan government and URNG sign "Accord on Socioeconomic Issues and the Agrarian Situation" in Mexico (May 6), by which the government commits itself to improved social services, health care, and education, and to better access to land for indigenous peoples, and finally, a peace accord in Oslo (Dec. 4), followed a Peace Ceremony in Guatemala City (Dec. 29), but violence continued to plague country. New Death squad, "FURODA" named for Roberto D'Aubisson appears in El Salvador (26 June). Arnoldo Alemán (AL & PLC) elected President of Nicaragua (Oct. 20), takes office Jan. 10, 1997; Pope John Paul II visits Guatemala, Nicaragua and El Salvador (Feb 5-9).

1997 Violent legislative election campaign in El Salvador, as FMLN makes notable gains, but ARENA retains control in coalition with other right-wing parties. Indigenous organizations in Guatemala and Honduras become more active, but suffer from right-wing attacks and assassinations; In Honduras, on Oct. 12 police prevented indigenous people from erecting a stature of Lempira (Lenca Indian who resisted Spanish conquest) on site where they had torn down a statue of Columbus.

1998 Carlos Roberto Flores (PL) takes office as President of Honduras (Jan. 27), having been elected on Nov 30, 1997. Panama rejects Guatemalan efforts to extradite former president Jorge Serrano; Miguel Angel Rodríguez (PUSC) elected President of Costa Rica (1 Feb.). Sex scandal charges against Daniel Ortega furthers divisions within FSLN in Nicaragua.

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